Promoting the Personal Development of Young People

What makes us who we are: The Nature Versus Nurture Debate

There is more psychological evidence that human behaviour is due to nurture than nature

In this post I intend to argue that there is more psychological evidence that human behaviour is due to nurture than nature. Psychological evidence shows that nature is strongly influenced by nurture, and that experiences are food for the growth of the brain and even for its evolution.

How environment affects genetic disposition:

Polderman et al (2015) in a meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on twin studies, assert that all human traits are shown to be heritable. However environment still plays a significant statistical impact through external and internal physical, biological, physiological, psychological and social and economic environments.

Through Socio Economic factors

One prime influence on hereditary expression is the Socio-Economic Status (SES) of families (Turkheimer et al 2003). SES is a broad brush of many factors of quality of life, by circumstance or by human causation and is associated with environmental situations, housing, diet and health, social family cohesion, attachment, parental nurture and life opportunity.

Burns (2013) exemplifies that in households filled with anxiety, often from low SES circumstances, chronic states of stress and cortisol are engendered physiologically in children which inhibits their brain growth and development capacity. Hackman and Farah (2009) show the complex and profound influence of low SES has on the developing brain, particularly language and executive function. They suggest that cognitive performance may also be influenced by epigenetic mechanisms arising from the environment in different mechanisms and directly influencing gene expression.

Through Attachment

Bowlby (1973) describes how broken attachment can arise when warm maternal contact with infants and children is interrupted, and this has social and development implications. However Lindet al. (2017) show how an intervention approach to toddlers with broken attachment, can restore executive functioning. This is through ‘emotional holding’ techniques by parental figures to restore attachment. Emotional and cognitive development can be strengthened by interventions of a patient positive attachment strategy.

Duyme et al (1999) show that when children were placed in a more nurturing adoptive environment ( higher SES) this led to a significant gain in Intelligence. The younger the age and the lower the SES of the original environment, the more marked increase. A more nurturing environment allows experiences to enable genetic emotional and intelligence expression.

Through Intelligence and Cognitive Traits

Plomin and Deary (2015) show that while intelligence is heritable, it shows substantial environmental influence. In low SES families inherited intelligence can be stifled completely (Turkheimer et al 2003).

Diamond & Lee (2011) show how various learning programmes can improve cognitive executive functions associated with the prefrontal cortex. These functions are associated with concentration, purposeful and flexible thinking and show impact in influence in intelligence. Diverse activities range from certain computer games, aerobics, yoga, martial arts, mindfulness, and certain aspects of the curriculum.

Through Personality Development

Kandler and Zapko-Willmes (2017) show the interplay of genetic dispositions and their expression, involving the biological, emotional and social environment. While personality traits may be genetically grounded, they are influenced by a continual interaction with experience throughout a lifetime. This interaction causes changes in the genetic make-up through epigenesis.

Durlak & Weissberg R. et al,( 2011) show the impact of social and emotional learning, and of positive psychological approaches in schools or leisure activities. These promote and influence well-being of young people and have positive implications into other areas of cognitive and intelligence.

Through Language Acquisition

Language development is grounded by a genetic disposition set up for the experiences of life (Ladd et al 2008). Werker and Desjardins (1995) show that infants are attuned to listen to all human speech sounds and this sensitivity modifies to be refined to their particular language environment. Warm social interactions in language enable an epigenetic nurture of language acquisition which thrives on particular aspects of language interchange (Onnis, 2017) .

Genetic predispositions for language changes in the early years through stages and has particular stages of sensitivities, e.g. in the early stages of life, being more open for second language acquisition assimilation (Birdsong 2006) . The predispositions adapt, if used or not, showing a tailing off in maturation for flexible language acquisition. The capacity of language development is linked to quality experiences in early life.

Through Epigenetics, Neuroplasticity and Evolution

Simons and Klopack (2014) suggest that our understanding of the way environment impacts on behaviour, has recently undergone a paradigm shift through epigenesis and neuroplasticity. In epigenetic processes, both short and long term, our genetics are biologically affected by experiences and environment. The physical nature of the brain is altered in a flexible neuroplastic model through continual modification from experiences. Nurture acts as a broad and integrated concept of influence. Mundkur (2005) shows that the neuroplasticity in children goes through critical periods and transitions affected by nurture, training and environmental conditions - “The brain is the organ that is designed to change with experience.”

Portera and Mandrioli (2021) link the epigenesis process to the crucial role of Charles Darwin’s understanding of how ‘habits’ engendered ‘instincts’ in his theory of evolution. His intuition of these processes stood beside natural selection.

Through Promoting Well Being, Sense of Coherence and Agency

Davidson & McEwen, 2012 suggest that social and emotional interventions, both negative and positive, shape our brain in different structural and functional changes. They show that well-being may be enhanced with prosocial approaches.

Antonovsky (1987) suggests that socialisation and self-development of young people, can be supported by adult input, nurturing resilience through a ‘sense of coherence’ that life is understandable. The growth of a psychological sense of ‘agency’ ( Renes et al, 2018) to seize opportunity for self-development has importance. Sorbring and Kuczynski (2019) show that growth of agency in children, irrespective of their SES and genetics has impact on well-being.

Conclusion

Our genetic make-up has potential for growth in disposition, but it is how we are nurtured in the different ways of experience in life which can develop or hinder our development and traits and even our evolution as sentient beings.

Linked-In article 27 March, 2025

Mental Health and Personal Agency

I strongly regret that the Scottish Educational establishment fails to understand the importance of the nurture of agency in young people.
Consequently, Scottish schools generally still do not engender the natural disposition and enthusiasm of significant numbers of our young people and contributes to their increased growth of anxiety, depression and poor mental health.

Agency is a natural psychological state, which is often seen by parents as important for their children. Many go out of their way to give their youngsters opportunities to grow, develop and feel internal personal value. Agency is a genetic disposition which engenders intelligence, well-being and the social disposition for good mental health. Everyone can sense it when they are engaged, interested, feel good about themselves and are valued by others. While many teachers also understand this concept of personal nurture, the system frequently dissipates their own sense of agency and also the attention they can give to their pupils’ growth in positive, personal relationships, opportunities and value.

Do we create for all of our young people that sense of value, and social confidence that are earmarks for growing our communities and national citizenship? Usually we have a two tier system often based on post-codes and opportunity. Schools laud those who have gained such advantage in agency and do well in the system, and merely manage those who have had blighted prospects. For many it is a matter of enduring school.

The two recent examples of media coverage of the success of Berwickshire High School (Reform Scotland), and Hyndland Secondary (HMIE Report), evidence the nurture of agency. In the first case staff are made agents in their approach to ‘big ideas’ and with the later in the positive pastoral and extra-curricula activities of young people. In both schools, high credence appears to be placed on each individual's opportunity, sense of value and growth.
I can sense that many young people in these schools and their staff, have hope and optimism kindled, and I suspect this will alleviate anxiety and feeling without value.

After Covid, it is especially necessary for all educators to see the promotion of personal agency of everyone in the system as being essential for optimism and more engagement in life’s choices. There are a number of specific things which can be done at national, local, school and classroom level which can nudge our school system forward, as reported in my previous posts.

But first we must hold Personal Agency as the main component of well-being, growth, and intelligence, and understand it as Sir Walter Scott grasped “For success, attitude is equally as important as ability!”

Blog published by Reform Scotland

Promoting the Personal Development of Young People:

Why Personal Agency is important in Families and Education – Euan Mackie

17 October 2022

Having a revitalised appreciation of education, in its fullest sense, is essential for the promotion of young people’s personal development. This should include the nurturing of personal agency.

The review of the role of Scotland’s national educational institutions is important in clarifying the direction of education for Scotland’s young people and those who support it. As the OECD has recognised, we have an assessment overload. This percolates the whole system. We are so used to assessment criteria in everything, we believe it is synonymous with our notion of ‘education’, as the outcomes of ‘didactic schooling’. However those outside our system in non-formal education see it as a systemic neurosis. Rather than seeing the Four Capacities (1) and the UN Rights of the Child (2) as being the vision which should dictate how we support young people, everyone is bogged down in meeting protocols and guidance in all manner of things. This is hierarchical control and the antithesis of promoting personal agency.

We need to think carefully, as parents, teachers, educators, and those in the health sectors how we respond to the challenge of strengthening young people’s well-being and, of course, of our own development! Through extensive personal experience, and using psychological research, I suggest there are natural approaches for promoting better personal development for young people, in families and in institutions. The outcomes are about nurturing a growth in ‘personal agency’ as the OECD define: an ability and will to positively influence our own lives and those around us (3).

Young people all need to have a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives and to feel supported in their development. I suggest the Covid-19 pandemic has significantly given us a reality check on the need for safe and nurturing educational and family life. It has drawn attention to structural and systemic failures in the pastoral care of young people, the impact of social isolation and an exacerbation of mental health issues.

Our new understanding of the human condition provides us with strong concepts regarding the growth of all individuals. Our neurological conditions are flexible, have plasticity and respond to nurturing environments. We now understand that humans have strong genetic dispositions for learning new skills and for social collaboration. These elements can combine towards the growth of personal agency and hence well-being and intelligence 4. Family life and educational institutions can limit and hinder these two main dispositions or enhance them. I suggest a modern psychological understanding of well-being and mental health can influence families and educational institutions with approaches designed to promote personal agency in young people’s development.

In the first place we know that young people need positive social wrapping in families and in educational institutions for making the best of opportunities for their development. Social wrapping includes aspects of: Feeling safe and secure; Having rich interactions and dialogues with carers and teachers; Having choices for exploration through ordered freedom; Providing grace in young people’s oversight. Institutions need to build positive rich relationship models which provide these essential conditions.

Given social wrapping, there are ten key approaches for improving the personal development of young people through nurturing personal agency. The two main approaches are enhancing the skills development of all young people and also providing them with inclusive positive social experiences.

The acquisition of skills has a direct neurological impact on self-identity. Mastery goes towards becoming more independent and an aptitude for self-agency and efficacy – the ultimate of education. Too many young people languish in our institutions with low levels of skills, from the onset of education, and are carried throughout the system and managed as low ability groups. The labelling of these pupils in the early stages of primary school, even at the age of 5, becomes an influencing and determinant factor for academic success. Their personal agency is systemically undermined from the outset by being compared with their peers. This needs to change to engage those young people to become more motivated and engaged in their skills development.

Pastoral care was signposted in Scotland as a development priority as early as the ‘10-14 programme’ (5) in the nineteen eighties. It has become a matter of protocols rather than enriching education consistently with positive social experiences. Young people meet many adults in school, and further education, but often don’t have someone who knows them really well. Many don’t receive inclusive social experiences, even though the evidence is that participating in positive inclusive pastoral groups is instrumental to individual well-being and to personality development (6). These positive social experiences are ones without formal success criteria, but are ones related to personal choice, creative and expressive activities, service and volunteering and are linked with well-being outcomes.

From pre-school childcare, through primary and secondary schools, into higher and tertiary lifelong education, there should be a clearer emphasis on skills progression and richer inclusive social and creative pastoral experiences for all young people.

There are other approaches which support these two main aspects of development of personal agency. These include a higher public service importance for developing and collaborating with family efficacy (How families aspire to be involved with their children’s broader education). The quality of institutional environments within their communities needs dramatically enhancing away from institutional industrial uniformity towards socially amenable places for communities to learn and interact. The pedagogical structures of institutions need to be shifted towards the individual and personal skills and pastoral needs of young people. The role of teachers moves towards being educators and having teaching, coaching and facilitating roles. There is more emphasis on networking, collaboration and dialogue for improving the quality of the system based on the growth of personal agency of all participants.

These approaches offer a change from current historical structures of institutional education and point towards a socially collaborative way based on dialogue, mentoring and coaching. As society has woken up to cases of historical use of power in education, even for abuse and discrimination in public schools, then we can see how much power remains within the system to deny many young people, and even of their families, of their natural disposition for agency. A stronger sense of personal agency in life, and of citizenship, is this fundamental vision for education.

Euan Mackie is an educational Leadership coach and independent researcher into Social Educational Psychology.

References:
1 Scottish Curriculum for Excellence: The Four Capacities
2 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26,
3 OECD, (2021). OECD Learning Compass, 2030.
4 Sorbring E., Kuczynski L., (2019). Children’s agency in the family, in school and in society: implications for health and well-being.
5 Scottish Education Department (1986). Education 10-14 in Scotland. Report of the Programme. Directing Committee, Consultative Committee on the Curriculum.
6 Durlak, J.A., et al. (2011).The Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions, SRCD Child Development Volume 82 Issue 1.